Selective Error Handling

What about functions returning different Error types?

In this example func1() can return either Func1ErrorFunc2 or Func1ErrorIO.

We might want to match on func1() with something like:

fn main() -> Result<(), Box<Error + Send + Sync>> {
    match func1() {
        Err(e) if let Some(s) = e.downcast_chain_ref::<Func1ErrorIO>() =>
        eprintln!("Func1ErrorIO:\n{:?}", s),

        Err(e) if let Some(s) = e.downcast_chain_ref::<Func1ErrorFunc2>() =>
        eprintln!("Func1ErrorFunc2:\n{:?}", s),
        
        Ok(_) => {}, 
    }
    Ok(())
}

but this is not valid rust code, so we end up doing it the hard way. In the next chapter, we will see, how to solve this more elegantly.

use chainerror::{Context as _, ErrorDown};

use std::error::Error;
use std::io;

fn do_some_io() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error + Send + Sync>> {
    Err(io::Error::from(io::ErrorKind::NotFound))?;
    Ok(())
}

chainerror::str_context!(Func2Error);

fn func2() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error + Send + Sync>> {
    let filename = "foo.txt";
    do_some_io().context(Func2Error(format!("Error reading '{}'", filename)))?;
    Ok(())
}

chainerror::str_context!(Func1ErrorFunc2);
chainerror::str_context!(Func1ErrorIO);

fn func1() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error + Send + Sync>> {
    func2().context(Func1ErrorFunc2::new("func1 error calling func2"))?;
    let filename = "bar.txt";
    do_some_io().context(Func1ErrorIO(format!("Error reading '{}'", filename)))?;
    Ok(())
}

fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error + Send + Sync>> {
    if let Err(e) = func1() {
        if let Some(s) = e.downcast_ref::<chainerror::Error<Func1ErrorIO>>() {
            eprintln!("Func1ErrorIO:\n{:?}", s);
        }

        if let Some(s) = e.downcast_chain_ref::<Func1ErrorFunc2>() {
            eprintln!("Func1ErrorFunc2:\n{:?}", s);
        }
        std::process::exit(1);
    }
    Ok(())
}
#[allow(dead_code)]
mod chainerror {
#![doc = include_str!("../README.md")]
#![deny(clippy::all)]
#![allow(clippy::needless_doctest_main)]
#![deny(missing_docs)]

use std::any::TypeId;
use std::error::Error as StdError;
use std::fmt::{Debug, Display, Formatter};
use std::panic::Location;

/// chains an inner error kind `T` with a causing error
pub struct Error<T> {
    occurrence: Option<String>,
    kind: T,
    error_cause: Option<Box<dyn StdError + 'static + Send + Sync>>,
}

/// convenience type alias
pub type Result<O, E> = std::result::Result<O, Error<E>>;

impl<T: 'static + Display + Debug> Error<T> {
    /// Use the `context()` or `map_context()` Result methods instead of calling this directly
    #[inline]
    pub fn new(
        kind: T,
        error_cause: Option<Box<dyn StdError + 'static + Send + Sync>>,
        occurrence: Option<String>,
    ) -> Self {
        Self {
            occurrence,
            kind,
            error_cause,
        }
    }

    /// return the root cause of the error chain, if any exists
    pub fn root_cause(&self) -> Option<&(dyn StdError + 'static)> {
        self.iter().last()
    }

    /// Find the first error cause of type U, if any exists
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// use chainerror::Context as _;
    /// use chainerror::ErrorDown as _;
    /// use std::error::Error;
    /// use std::io;
    ///
    /// fn do_some_io() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error + Send + Sync>> {
    ///     Err(io::Error::from(io::ErrorKind::NotFound))?;
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    ///
    /// chainerror::str_context!(Func2Error);
    ///
    /// fn func2() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error + Send + Sync>> {
    ///     let filename = "foo.txt";
    ///     do_some_io().context(Func2Error(format!("Error reading '{}'", filename)))?;
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    ///
    /// chainerror::str_context!(Func1Error);
    ///
    /// fn func1() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error + Send + Sync>> {
    ///     func2().context(Func1Error::new("func1 error"))?;
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    ///
    /// if let Err(e) = func1() {
    ///     if let Some(f1err) = e.downcast_chain_ref::<Func1Error>() {
    ///         assert!(f1err.find_cause::<io::Error>().is_some());
    ///
    ///         assert!(f1err.find_chain_cause::<Func2Error>().is_some());
    ///     }
    /// #        else {
    /// #            panic!();
    /// #        }
    /// }
    /// #    else {
    /// #         unreachable!();
    /// #    }
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn find_cause<U: StdError + 'static>(&self) -> Option<&U> {
        self.iter()
            .filter_map(<dyn StdError>::downcast_ref::<U>)
            .next()
    }

    /// Find the first error cause of type [`Error<U>`](Error), if any exists
    ///
    /// Same as `find_cause`, but hides the [`Error<U>`](Error) implementation internals
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # chainerror::str_context!(FooError);
    /// # let err = chainerror::Error::new(String::new(), None, None);
    /// // Instead of writing
    /// err.find_cause::<chainerror::Error<FooError>>();
    ///
    /// // leave out the chainerror::Error<FooError> implementation detail
    /// err.find_chain_cause::<FooError>();
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn find_chain_cause<U: StdError + 'static>(&self) -> Option<&Error<U>> {
        self.iter()
            .filter_map(<dyn StdError>::downcast_ref::<Error<U>>)
            .next()
    }

    /// Find the first error cause of type [`Error<U>`](Error) or `U`, if any exists and return `U`
    ///
    /// Same as `find_cause` and `find_chain_cause`, but hides the [`Error<U>`](Error) implementation internals
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # chainerror::str_context!(FooErrorKind);
    /// # let err = chainerror::Error::new(String::new(), None, None);
    /// // Instead of writing
    /// err.find_cause::<chainerror::Error<FooErrorKind>>();
    /// // and/or
    /// err.find_chain_cause::<FooErrorKind>();
    /// // and/or
    /// err.find_cause::<FooErrorKind>();
    ///
    /// // leave out the chainerror::Error<FooErrorKind> implementation detail
    /// err.find_kind_or_cause::<FooErrorKind>();
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn find_kind_or_cause<U: StdError + 'static>(&self) -> Option<&U> {
        self.iter()
            .filter_map(|e| {
                e.downcast_ref::<Error<U>>()
                    .map(|e| e.kind())
                    .or_else(|| e.downcast_ref::<U>())
            })
            .next()
    }

    /// Return a reference to T of [`Error<T>`](Error)
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// use chainerror::Context as _;
    /// use std::error::Error;
    /// use std::io;
    ///
    /// fn do_some_io() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error + Send + Sync>> {
    ///     Err(io::Error::from(io::ErrorKind::NotFound))?;
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    ///
    /// chainerror::str_context!(Func2Error);
    ///
    /// fn func2() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error + Send + Sync>> {
    ///     let filename = "foo.txt";
    ///     do_some_io().context(Func2Error(format!("Error reading '{}'", filename)))?;
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    ///
    /// #[derive(Debug)]
    /// enum Func1ErrorKind {
    ///     Func2,
    ///     IO(String),
    /// }
    ///
    /// /// impl ::std::fmt::Display for Func1ErrorKind {…}
    /// # impl ::std::fmt::Display for Func1ErrorKind {
    /// #     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut ::std::fmt::Formatter) -> ::std::fmt::Result {
    /// #         match self {
    /// #             Func1ErrorKind::Func2 => write!(f, "func1 error calling func2"),
    /// #             Func1ErrorKind::IO(filename) => write!(f, "Error reading '{}'", filename),
    /// #         }
    /// #     }
    /// # }
    ///
    /// fn func1() -> chainerror::Result<(), Func1ErrorKind> {
    ///     func2().context(Func1ErrorKind::Func2)?;
    ///     do_some_io().context(Func1ErrorKind::IO("bar.txt".into()))?;
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    ///
    /// if let Err(e) = func1() {
    ///     match e.kind() {
    ///         Func1ErrorKind::Func2 => {}
    ///         Func1ErrorKind::IO(filename) => panic!(),
    ///     }
    /// }
    /// #    else {
    /// #         unreachable!();
    /// #    }
    /// ```
    #[inline]
    pub fn kind(&self) -> &T {
        &self.kind
    }

    /// Returns an Iterator over all error causes/sources
    ///
    /// # Example
    #[inline]
    pub fn iter(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &(dyn StdError + 'static)> {
        ErrorIter {
            current: Some(self),
        }
    }
}

/// Convenience methods for `Result<>` to turn the error into a decorated [`Error`](Error)
pub trait Context<O, E: Into<Box<dyn StdError + 'static + Send + Sync>>> {
    /// Decorate the error with a `kind` of type `T` and the source `Location`
    fn context<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(self, kind: T) -> std::result::Result<O, Error<T>>;

    /// Decorate the error just with the source `Location`
    fn annotate(self) -> std::result::Result<O, Error<AnnotatedError>>;

    /// Decorate the `error` with a `kind` of type `T` produced with a `FnOnce(&error)` and the source `Location`
    fn map_context<T: 'static + Display + Debug, F: FnOnce(&E) -> T>(
        self,
        op: F,
    ) -> std::result::Result<O, Error<T>>;
}

/// Convenience type to just decorate the error with the source `Location`
pub struct AnnotatedError(());

impl Display for AnnotatedError {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
        write!(f, "(passed error)")
    }
}

impl Debug for AnnotatedError {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
        write!(f, "(passed error)")
    }
}

impl<O, E: Into<Box<dyn StdError + 'static + Send + Sync>>> Context<O, E>
    for std::result::Result<O, E>
{
    #[track_caller]
    #[inline]
    fn context<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(self, kind: T) -> std::result::Result<O, Error<T>> {
        match self {
            Ok(t) => Ok(t),
            Err(error_cause) => Err(Error::new(
                kind,
                Some(error_cause.into()),
                Some(Location::caller().to_string()),
            )),
        }
    }

    #[track_caller]
    #[inline]
    fn annotate(self) -> std::result::Result<O, Error<AnnotatedError>> {
        match self {
            Ok(t) => Ok(t),
            Err(error_cause) => Err(Error::new(
                AnnotatedError(()),
                Some(error_cause.into()),
                Some(Location::caller().to_string()),
            )),
        }
    }

    #[track_caller]
    #[inline]
    fn map_context<T: 'static + Display + Debug, F: FnOnce(&E) -> T>(
        self,
        op: F,
    ) -> std::result::Result<O, Error<T>> {
        match self {
            Ok(t) => Ok(t),
            Err(error_cause) => {
                let kind = op(&error_cause);
                Err(Error::new(
                    kind,
                    Some(error_cause.into()),
                    Some(Location::caller().to_string()),
                ))
            }
        }
    }
}

/// An iterator over all error causes/sources
pub struct ErrorIter<'a> {
    current: Option<&'a (dyn StdError + 'static)>,
}

impl<'a> Iterator for ErrorIter<'a> {
    type Item = &'a (dyn StdError + 'static);

    #[inline]
    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
        let current = self.current;
        self.current = self.current.and_then(StdError::source);
        current
    }
}

impl<T: 'static + Display + Debug> std::ops::Deref for Error<T> {
    type Target = T;

    #[inline]
    fn deref(&self) -> &Self::Target {
        &self.kind
    }
}

/// Convenience trait to hide the [`Error<T>`](Error) implementation internals
pub trait ErrorDown {
    /// Test if of type `Error<T>`
    fn is_chain<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(&self) -> bool;
    /// Downcast to a reference of `Error<T>`
    fn downcast_chain_ref<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(&self) -> Option<&Error<T>>;
    /// Downcast to a mutable reference of `Error<T>`
    fn downcast_chain_mut<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(&mut self) -> Option<&mut Error<T>>;
    /// Downcast to T of `Error<T>`
    fn downcast_inner_ref<T: 'static + StdError>(&self) -> Option<&T>;
    /// Downcast to T mutable reference of `Error<T>`
    fn downcast_inner_mut<T: 'static + StdError>(&mut self) -> Option<&mut T>;
}

impl<U: 'static + Display + Debug> ErrorDown for Error<U> {
    #[inline]
    fn is_chain<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(&self) -> bool {
        TypeId::of::<T>() == TypeId::of::<U>()
    }

    #[inline]
    fn downcast_chain_ref<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(&self) -> Option<&Error<T>> {
        if self.is_chain::<T>() {
            #[allow(clippy::cast_ptr_alignment)]
            unsafe {
                #[allow(trivial_casts)]
                Some(*(self as *const dyn StdError as *const &Error<T>))
            }
        } else {
            None
        }
    }

    #[inline]
    fn downcast_chain_mut<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(&mut self) -> Option<&mut Error<T>> {
        if self.is_chain::<T>() {
            #[allow(clippy::cast_ptr_alignment)]
            unsafe {
                #[allow(trivial_casts)]
                Some(&mut *(self as *mut dyn StdError as *mut &mut Error<T>))
            }
        } else {
            None
        }
    }
    #[inline]
    fn downcast_inner_ref<T: 'static + StdError>(&self) -> Option<&T> {
        if self.is_chain::<T>() {
            #[allow(clippy::cast_ptr_alignment)]
            unsafe {
                #[allow(trivial_casts)]
                Some(&(*(self as *const dyn StdError as *const &Error<T>)).kind)
            }
        } else {
            None
        }
    }

    #[inline]
    fn downcast_inner_mut<T: 'static + StdError>(&mut self) -> Option<&mut T> {
        if self.is_chain::<T>() {
            #[allow(clippy::cast_ptr_alignment)]
            unsafe {
                #[allow(trivial_casts)]
                Some(&mut (*(self as *mut dyn StdError as *mut &mut Error<T>)).kind)
            }
        } else {
            None
        }
    }
}

impl ErrorDown for dyn StdError + 'static {
    #[inline]
    fn is_chain<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(&self) -> bool {
        self.is::<Error<T>>()
    }

    #[inline]
    fn downcast_chain_ref<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(&self) -> Option<&Error<T>> {
        self.downcast_ref::<Error<T>>()
    }

    #[inline]
    fn downcast_chain_mut<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(&mut self) -> Option<&mut Error<T>> {
        self.downcast_mut::<Error<T>>()
    }

    #[inline]
    fn downcast_inner_ref<T: 'static + StdError>(&self) -> Option<&T> {
        self.downcast_ref::<T>()
            .or_else(|| self.downcast_ref::<Error<T>>().map(|e| e.kind()))
    }

    #[inline]
    fn downcast_inner_mut<T: 'static + StdError>(&mut self) -> Option<&mut T> {
        if self.is::<T>() {
            return self.downcast_mut::<T>();
        }

        self.downcast_mut::<Error<T>>()
            .and_then(|e| e.downcast_inner_mut::<T>())
    }
}

impl ErrorDown for dyn StdError + 'static + Send {
    #[inline]
    fn is_chain<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(&self) -> bool {
        self.is::<Error<T>>()
    }

    #[inline]
    fn downcast_chain_ref<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(&self) -> Option<&Error<T>> {
        self.downcast_ref::<Error<T>>()
    }

    #[inline]
    fn downcast_chain_mut<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(&mut self) -> Option<&mut Error<T>> {
        self.downcast_mut::<Error<T>>()
    }

    #[inline]
    fn downcast_inner_ref<T: 'static + StdError>(&self) -> Option<&T> {
        self.downcast_ref::<T>()
            .or_else(|| self.downcast_ref::<Error<T>>().map(|e| e.kind()))
    }

    #[inline]
    fn downcast_inner_mut<T: 'static + StdError>(&mut self) -> Option<&mut T> {
        if self.is::<T>() {
            return self.downcast_mut::<T>();
        }

        self.downcast_mut::<Error<T>>()
            .and_then(|e| e.downcast_inner_mut::<T>())
    }
}

impl ErrorDown for dyn StdError + 'static + Send + Sync {
    #[inline]
    fn is_chain<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(&self) -> bool {
        self.is::<Error<T>>()
    }

    #[inline]
    fn downcast_chain_ref<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(&self) -> Option<&Error<T>> {
        self.downcast_ref::<Error<T>>()
    }

    #[inline]
    fn downcast_chain_mut<T: 'static + Display + Debug>(&mut self) -> Option<&mut Error<T>> {
        self.downcast_mut::<Error<T>>()
    }

    #[inline]
    fn downcast_inner_ref<T: 'static + StdError>(&self) -> Option<&T> {
        self.downcast_ref::<T>()
            .or_else(|| self.downcast_ref::<Error<T>>().map(|e| e.kind()))
    }

    #[inline]
    fn downcast_inner_mut<T: 'static + StdError>(&mut self) -> Option<&mut T> {
        if self.is::<T>() {
            return self.downcast_mut::<T>();
        }

        self.downcast_mut::<Error<T>>()
            .and_then(|e| e.downcast_inner_mut::<T>())
    }
}

impl<T: 'static + Display + Debug> StdError for Error<T> {
    #[inline]
    fn source(&self) -> Option<&(dyn StdError + 'static)> {
        self.error_cause
            .as_ref()
            .map(|e| e.as_ref() as &(dyn StdError + 'static))
    }
}

impl<T: 'static + Display + Debug> StdError for &mut Error<T> {
    #[inline]
    fn source(&self) -> Option<&(dyn StdError + 'static)> {
        self.error_cause
            .as_ref()
            .map(|e| e.as_ref() as &(dyn StdError + 'static))
    }
}

impl<T: 'static + Display + Debug> Display for Error<T> {
    #[inline]
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
        write!(f, "{}", self.kind)?;

        if f.alternate() {
            if let Some(e) = self.source() {
                write!(f, "\nCaused by:\n  {:#}", &e)?;
            }
        }

        Ok(())
    }
}

impl<T: 'static + Display + Debug> Debug for Error<T> {
    #[inline]
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
        if f.alternate() {
            let mut f = f.debug_struct(&format!("Error<{}>", std::any::type_name::<T>()));

            let f = f
                .field("occurrence", &self.occurrence)
                .field("kind", &self.kind)
                .field("source", &self.source());

            f.finish()
        } else {
            if let Some(ref o) = self.occurrence {
                write!(f, "{}: ", o)?;
            }

            if TypeId::of::<String>() == TypeId::of::<T>()
                || TypeId::of::<&str>() == TypeId::of::<T>()
            {
                Display::fmt(&self.kind, f)?;
            } else {
                Debug::fmt(&self.kind, f)?;
            }

            if let Some(e) = self.source() {
                write!(f, "\nCaused by:\n{:?}", &e)?;
            }
            Ok(())
        }
    }
}

impl<T> From<T> for Error<T>
where
    T: 'static + Display + Debug,
{
    #[track_caller]
    #[inline]
    fn from(e: T) -> Error<T> {
        Error::new(e, None, Some(Location::caller().to_string()))
    }
}
/// Convenience macro to create a "new type" T(String) and implement Display + Debug for T
///
/// # Examples
///
/// ```rust
/// # use chainerror::Context as _;
/// # use chainerror::ErrorDown as _;
/// # use std::error::Error;
/// # use std::io;
/// # use std::result::Result;
/// # fn do_some_io() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error + Send + Sync>> {
/// #     Err(io::Error::from(io::ErrorKind::NotFound))?;
/// #     Ok(())
/// # }
/// chainerror::str_context!(Func2Error);
///
/// fn func2() -> chainerror::Result<(), Func2Error> {
///     let filename = "foo.txt";
///     do_some_io().context(Func2Error(format!("Error reading '{}'", filename)))?;
///     Ok(())
/// }
///
/// chainerror::str_context!(Func1Error);
///
/// fn func1() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error>> {
///     func2().context(Func1Error::new("func1 error"))?;
///     Ok(())
/// }
/// #     if let Err(e) = func1() {
/// #         if let Some(f1err) = e.downcast_chain_ref::<Func1Error>() {
/// #             assert!(f1err.find_cause::<chainerror::Error<Func2Error>>().is_some());
/// #             assert!(f1err.find_chain_cause::<Func2Error>().is_some());
/// #         } else {
/// #             panic!();
/// #         }
/// #     } else {
/// #         unreachable!();
/// #     }
/// ```
#[macro_export]
macro_rules! str_context {
    ($e:ident) => {
        #[derive(Clone)]
        pub struct $e(pub String);
        impl $e {
            pub fn new<S: Into<String>>(s: S) -> Self {
                $e(s.into())
            }
        }
        impl ::std::fmt::Display for $e {
            fn fmt(&self, f: &mut ::std::fmt::Formatter) -> ::std::fmt::Result {
                write!(f, "{}", self.0)
            }
        }
        impl ::std::fmt::Debug for $e {
            fn fmt(&self, f: &mut ::std::fmt::Formatter) -> ::std::fmt::Result {
                write!(f, "{}({})", stringify!($e), self.0)
            }
        }
        impl ::std::error::Error for $e {}
    };
}

/// Derive an Error for an ErrorKind, which wraps a [`Error`](Error) and implements a `kind()` method
///
/// It basically hides [`Error`](Error) to the outside and only exposes the [`kind()`](Error::kind)
/// method.
///
/// Error::kind() returns the ErrorKind
/// Error::source() returns the parent error
///
/// # Examples
///
/// ```rust
/// use chainerror::Context as _;
/// use std::io;
///
/// fn do_some_io(_f: &str) -> std::result::Result<(), io::Error> {
///     return Err(io::Error::from(io::ErrorKind::NotFound));
/// }
///
/// #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
/// pub enum ErrorKind {
///     IO(String),
///     FatalError(String),
///     Unknown,
/// }
///
/// chainerror::err_kind!(Error, ErrorKind);
///
/// impl std::fmt::Display for ErrorKind {
///     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut ::std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
///         match self {
///             ErrorKind::FatalError(e) => write!(f, "fatal error {}", e),
///             ErrorKind::Unknown => write!(f, "unknown error"),
///             ErrorKind::IO(filename) => write!(f, "Error reading '{}'", filename),
///         }
///     }
/// }
///
/// impl ErrorKind {
///     fn from_io_error(e: &io::Error, f: String) -> Self {
///         match e.kind() {
///             io::ErrorKind::BrokenPipe => panic!("Should not happen"),
///             io::ErrorKind::ConnectionReset => {
///                 ErrorKind::FatalError(format!("While reading `{}`: {}", f, e))
///             }
///             _ => ErrorKind::IO(f),
///         }
///     }
/// }
///
/// impl From<&io::Error> for ErrorKind {
///     fn from(e: &io::Error) -> Self {
///         ErrorKind::IO(format!("{}", e))
///     }
/// }
///
/// pub fn func1() -> std::result::Result<(), Error> {
///     let filename = "bar.txt";
///
///     do_some_io(filename).map_context(|e| ErrorKind::from_io_error(e, filename.into()))?;
///     do_some_io(filename).map_context(|e| ErrorKind::IO(filename.into()))?;
///     do_some_io(filename).map_context(|e| ErrorKind::from(e))?;
///     Ok(())
/// }
/// ```
#[macro_export]
macro_rules! err_kind {
    ($e:ident, $k:ident) => {
        pub struct $e($crate::Error<$k>);

        impl $e {
            pub fn kind(&self) -> &$k {
                self.0.kind()
            }
        }

        impl From<$k> for $e {
            fn from(e: $k) -> Self {
                $e($crate::Error::new(e, None, None))
            }
        }

        impl From<$crate::Error<$k>> for $e {
            fn from(e: $crate::Error<$k>) -> Self {
                $e(e)
            }
        }

        impl From<&$e> for $k
        where
            $k: Clone,
        {
            fn from(e: &$e) -> Self {
                e.kind().clone()
            }
        }

        impl std::error::Error for $e {
            fn source(&self) -> Option<&(dyn std::error::Error + 'static)> {
                self.0.source()
            }
        }

        impl std::fmt::Display for $e {
            fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
                std::fmt::Display::fmt(&self.0, f)
            }
        }

        impl std::fmt::Debug for $e {
            fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> std::fmt::Result {
                std::fmt::Debug::fmt(&self.0, f)
            }
        }
    };
}
}